Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) - Consultation

 

Please review this FAQ where our Assessment Center team have strived to answer many common questions regarding comprehensive student assessment.

If you still have specific questions after reading the Consultation FAQ or are requesting professional development, please fill out the Consult/Training Request and Information External link opens in new window or tab. (Google Form) form, and we will contact you shortly.

Quick Links for the different question types:

General

(Note: The term "visually impaired" is defined as a student who has low vision or is functionally blind.)

Will California School for the Blind (CSB) conduct a triennial assessment for my student who does not attend CSB?

CSB does not conduct initial or triennial assessments for Individualized Education Program (IEP) teams. Our assessments take place after the IEP team has done all required assessments (including Functional Vision Assessment/Learning Media Assessment (FVLMA)). CSB conducts focused assessments based on the questions asked by the IEP team in the application. More information about our assessment process can be found on the CSB Assessment Center webpage.

What should I know before beginning an assessment for a student with a visual impairment?
  • All assessments for a student with a visual impairment should begin with a FVLMA so that appropriate accommodations and modifications are used during all testing.
  • All specialists conducting assessments should consult with a Teacher of Students with Visual Impairments (TSVI) before and during assessments.
  • Determine if the TSVI who is on the student's caseload has been trained to conduct standardized assessments. Most teacher preparation programs for TSVIs do not include standardized test training; however, TSVIs should be involved in the assessment process to ensure appropriate access and validity.
  • Any accommodations made or used during the evaluation should be with the devices and media that the student is accustomed to using.
  • Anticipate that an assessment for a student with a visual impairment can take longer than average because of the extra time needed to plan, consult with others, collect more data points, confirm results, consider specific issues of validity, and interpret meaning.
  • There is much variety within the population of individuals with visual impairment. Factors such as cause, age of onset, nature and degree of impairment, and the presence or absence of additional disabilities limit the ability to develop meaningful Visual Impairment (VI) norms for assessment instruments. No one set of evaluation tools will be appropriate for all VI students.
I've never worked with a student with a visual impairment, are there any training videos available?

"More Than Meets The Eye: Working With Students With Visual Impairments External link opens in new window or tab. (Video; 42:34)" was created by the California School for the Blind to help educators who are new to the needs of students with visual impairments.

My student just had a triennial evaluation, but the IEP team still has questions and concerns. What do we do now?

The CSB Assessment Team conducts both field and center-based assessments for students with a visual impairment throughout California. Please contact us if you are interested in an assessment. More information about our assessment process can be found on the CSB Assessment Center webpage. Applications for assessment are accepted until the school year assessment calendar is filled.

What is required in order for CSB to conduct an assessment?
  • A current triennial assessment (within 3 years)
  • The student must be visually impaired
  • The student must reside in California
  • Access to relevant records (including FVLMA and triennial evaluation, current learning environment, and staff for potential reviews, observations, and dynamic assessments.
  • All IEP team members, including a district representative, must attend a collaborative conference to review the evaluation results and recommendations
Will CSB assessors join or take part in IEP meetings?

Assessments conducted by CSB are not part of the IEP process. The collaborative conference is not an IEP meeting. CSB assessors do not take part in IEP meetings.

I know that CSB offers a variety of assessments for students based in their Local Educational Agency (LEA), but I am not sure who to contact. Can you explain the differences between the assessment offerings?
  • The Assessment Center conducts targeted assessments based on questions presented by the IEP team. The Assessment Center staff consists of teachers of students with visual impairments, orientation and mobility specialists, a licensed educational psychologist, and a speech language pathologist.
  • The Assistive Technology Department provides assessments and training for assistive technology used by students with a visual impairment. If you are only interested in an assistive technology assessment, contact this department directly.
  • The Low Vision Center provides free Low Vision Exams conducted by UC Berkeley optometrists to students in California who have a visual impairment. Additional services include consultation for students and educators as well as access to a low vision showroom with hands-on opportunities with a wide variety of low vision devices, video magnifiers, and other technology.
If my student is assessed by the CSB assessment center, does that mean they will become a CSB student?

Assessments completed by the CSB assessment team are completely separate from the CSB enrollment process. Students seeking enrollment should pursue enrollment options before requesting an evaluation by the assessment center. Please visit the admissions page for more information about enrollment.

Assessing Students with a Visual Impairment and Additional Disabilities

Do you recommend standardized assessments for students with a visual impairment and additional disabilities?

It is often better to use alternative assessment methods including informal checklists, dynamic testing, and observational assessment tools for students with multiple disabilities or intensive needs. Alternative assessments capture the student's present levels of functioning in a more meaningful way than standardized assessments. Consider records review, interviews, observations, rating scales, and teacher checklists as data points for cognitive and processing skills demonstrated. Data points to consider for collecting applied cognitive and academic skills include:

  • How quickly does the student learn new skills, concepts, or games?
  • How well does the student retain new skills or concepts?
  • How well does the student grasp the directions of the presented activities?
  • How much repetition (teaching then re-teaching) is needed and to what extent is there a demonstrated need for many opportunities of supervised practice before the student can complete a task independently?
  • How much support is needed for skill generalization?
  • What types of support work best for the student? (i.e., verbal cues, touch cues, tactile objects, or a combination of these)
  • How reliant is the student on adult support in learning/interacting?

Additionally, consider using a Review, Interview, Observation, and Test/Instruction, Curriculum, Environment, and Learner (RIOT/ICEL) approach to the evaluation instead of standardized assessments. This comprehensive problem solving approach is a part of bringing social justice practices into evaluations and shifts the focus beyond the learner and standardized assessments. Use of a RIOT/ICEL matrix can help shift the test-heavy narratives of evaluations to emphasize multiple sources of data about the instructional, curriculum, and environmental factors impacting a student. It is appreciated when evaluators look beyond the numbers of standardized tests for relevant, meaningful data.

What tools do you recommend for a student who has multiple disabilities?
  • Child-guided Strategies: The Van Dijk Approach to Assessment (American Printing House - APH) External link opens in new window or tab. contains guidelines for conducting an assessment for children with sensory impairments and multiple disabilities following the Van Dijk approach (e.g., no standardized protocols or materials, follows the lead of the individual child). The assessment is organized into 8 observational areas: behavioral state, orienting response, learning channels, approach-withdrawal, memory, social interactions, communication, and problem solving. Forms, including a parent interview form and observational forms, can be downloaded from APH.
  • The Oregon Project for Preschool Children who are Blind or Visually Impaired, 6th Edition External link opens in new window or tab. is a criterion referenced assessment tool with behavioral statements in developmental sequence from birth to 6 years in the areas of cognition, language, social, vision, compensatory, self-help, fine motor, and gross motor. The Oregon Project also includes a curriculum designed to be used by parents, teachers, vision specialists, or counselors in the home or in the classroom setting. Evaluation teams may choose to administer the Oregon Project together as a team or select different portions for different specialists to administer and collaborate in the interpretation and reporting of the student's performance.
  • 2021 INSITE Checklist Instructional Manual: Assessment of Developmental Skills for Children with Sensory Impairments and Additional Disabilities External link opens in new window or tab. assesses the areas of gross motor, fine motor, self-help, cognition, social, emotional, communication, vision, auditory, and tactile development. This 2021 updated edition reflects more current practice in assessment, goal setting, and early intervention planning for young children with Sensory Impairments and Additional Disabilities 0-5. The 2021 INSITE Developmental Checklist - Individual Test Booklet External link opens in new window or tab. includes the INSITE Checklist itself, quick instructions for use, and scoring and reporting forms. The four forms that have been previously used (0-2 Checklist, 0-6 Checklist, Profile and Score Sheet only for 0-2 and 0-6) have been consolidated into one test booklet (0-8). One booklet is needed for each child.
Are there additional nonstandardized assessment tools that you recommend that will help the IEP team better understand my student?
  • Determine the student's likes and preferences by using a tool such as the Personal Preference Indicators External link opens in new window or tab. form or the Washington Sensory Disabilities Services Likes/Dislikes form.
  • The Basic Skills Infused Skills Assessment (Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired - TSBVI) is a very effective tool for analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of students with visual impairments who may also have cognitive and behavioral challenges. This assessment begins at a developmentally young, non-verbal skill level and progresses up to higher cognitive functions, while remaining appropriate for students in life skills programming. This assessment provides an informal measure in social communicative interactions, emotional development, senses/motor skills, basic concepts, and representation and cognition.
  • Assessing Communication and Learning in Young Children Who are Deafblind or Who Have Multiple Disabilities (Rowland, 2009) was developed to investigate best practices for assessing communication and learning skills in young children (2-8 years of age) who are deafblind and who have additional impairments.

Multidisciplinary Assessments

What do you recommend when embarking on a multidisciplinary assessment?
  • Team collaboration throughout the evaluation process is essential, including with the family. The various specialists involved may have overlap in the skill areas to be assessed. Consider having the evaluation team participate in a group video conference interview with parents and conduct team evaluations (e.g., arena style assessments with evaluators fluidly providing tasks to engage the student while other evaluators observe). Consult each other before sending the family questionnaires that might be redundant.
  • Evaluations provide the opportunity to shift discussion from "what has this student learned?" to "what will help this student become competent and independent?" Consider what will help to improve the student's quality of life.
What are common questions you use to guide your assessments?
  • What promotes the student's engagement and interest?
    • What gains the student's attention?
    • What maintains the student's attention?
    • What materials, activities, or people help to engage the student?
    • What is the student's stamina like? What is an appropriate expectation for the student's sustained engagement?
  • What are the student's sensory preferences?
    • How does the student explore new objects?
    • How does the student react to assistance or prompts (verbal, physical)?
    • How does the student respond to familiar and unfamiliar environments?
    • How does the student engage in play?
  • How does the student communicate?
    • How successfully does the student communicate with familiar people? Unfamiliar people?
    • How does the student respond to interaction and communication attempts?
    • What supports are needed for the student to indicate a choice?
    • How does the student express feelings?
    • How does the student interact with peers?
  • How does the student participate in daily routines?
    • Does the student help in any small way such as holding an arm out while being dressed or opening their mouth in anticipation of oral feeds?
    • Does the student anticipate any daily routines?
  • What types of environmental factors support their learning (i.e., visual, positional, auditory)?
  • How is information best presented to promote learning?
I need to make an accommodation and/or modification when administering a standardized test. Are the scores still valid?

Some accommodations may modify the task demands and the construct the test intended to measure; in which case, scores should not be reported. If standardized assessments are administered, qualitative interpretation of the results may be more appropriate than quantitative reporting of the results. A dynamic, authentic assessment style is recommended over a standardized method in many cases.

Remember to include statements regarding the validity of the results given the required break from standardized procedures to facilitate the student's engagement with testing.

Comprehensive Vision Assessment

I have not heard of the term "Comprehensive Vision Assessment." What does it mean?

A Comprehensive Vision Assessment includes a Functional Vision Learning Media Assessment (FVLMA), Assistive Technology (AT) Assessment, and Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC) Assessment. A Comprehensive Vision Assessment is an essential part of the initial and triennial assessment required per California Education Code.

What assessment tools do you recommend using for a Comprehensive Vision Assessment?

Whether you are conducting remote, in-person, or hybrid evaluations, there are many assessment tools to consider. The What's in Your Assessment Toolbox External link opens in new window or tab. (Google Doc) document includes some of the newest assessments now available along with the tried and true. These assessments target the variety of students we serve including students with visual impairments, multiple disabilities, autism, Cortical Visual Impairment (CVI), and who are deafblind.

CVI

Do you have any training materials to help my student's IEP team and family better understand CVI?

CSB recently developed a Self-Paced CVI Short Course External link opens in new window or tab. using the Google Classroom platform. If you have difficulty signing up for the link, use a personal Google account as many work accounts will block access.

What do I do if I suspect my student has CVI?
  • Teach CVI External link opens in new window or tab. has several CVI Screeners External link opens in new window or tab. that can help determine if a student should be referred for further evaluation due to suspicion of CVI. There are 3 different questionnaires, one for students with motor disabilities who are non-ambulatory, one for students ages 2-6, and one for students ages 6-12.
  • The Visual Skills Inventory Younger Child 4-8 years from the Cerebral Visual Impairment Assessment - Ulster University created by Dr. Gordon Dutton and his team is another tool that can be used if there is a suspicion of CVI.

FVLMA

Can a district require that the parent/guardian provide an optometry or ophthalmology report?

A recent ophthalmology or optometry report is highly recommended and considered best practice for determining service delivery; however, federal and state eligibility regulations for special education do not require medical documentation. If a district states that it is mandatory to make an eligibility decision, then the district is financially responsible. Please refer to OSEP 17-05 Policy Letter - Eligibility Determinations for Children Suspected of Having a Visual Impairment Including Blindness under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act External link opens in new window or tab. (PDF).

Does CSB provide low vision exams?

Students with visual impairments throughout California are eligible for a free Low Vision exam every three years through CSB and our collaboration with UC Berkeley. Contact Vanessa Herndon (vherndon@csb-cde.ca.gov) to inquire about a low vision exam.

Is a low vision exam the same as an optometric exam?

A low vision exam is designed specifically for someone who has low vision. It is conducted by an optometrist or ophthalmologist who specializes in low vision. The doctor will determine how the visual impairment affects daily life and prescribe tools to enhance remaining vision.

Deafblind

Why is it important to identify a student as deafblind rather than blind and deaf?

Deafblindness is more than a summation of the impacts of visual impairment and hearing impairment; deafblindness is better viewed as a multiplication problem as there are additional cumulative needs that should be addressed when a student has a combination of vision and hearing loss, which may not be present with only one sensory modality impairment.

What standardized assessment can I use for a student who is deafblind?

No standardized assessments exist that are valid and reliable for deafblind individuals since there is great variability within the deafblind population. In addition, the low incidence nature of deafblindness creates challenges in efforts to make standardized assessments. As such, standardized assessments may not be appropriate for students who are deafblind.

A dynamic, authentic assessment style is recommended over a standardized method. Consult with the TSVI, Deaf/Hard of Hearing (D/HOH) specialist, Speech Language Pathologist (SLP), and instructional aide/intervener, and consider data from records review, interviews, observations, and testing conducted by other evaluators on the IEP team to determine if the results are representative of the student's functioning or more of a reflection of needs and considerations for supports stemming from the student's disabilities. Determine what best promotes motivation, engagement, participation, and independence.

I do not normally work with the student I am assessing. I'm concerned that I will not understand what the student is communicating.

When direct assessments are conducted, at least one adult who knows the student well and understands their communication/communication attempts should be present. An instructional assistant/intervener who has been working with the student for some time is a great option.

Evaluating a student through an intervener who is using American Sign Language (ASL) strongly impacts the results of your evaluation. ASL has its own unique grammar and syntax, and interpreting changes how the instructions are given. You may end up accidentally testing the skills of the intervener more than you are testing the child. In addition, include a validity statement in your report about giving the evaluation through an intervener who was interpreting for the child. Review California Deafblind Services External link opens in new window or tab. website for more information about interveners.

Do you have any resources for assessing a student who is deafblind?

Autism

How can my student's IEP team determine whether or not my student has autism or if the behaviors we are seeing are solely due to the visual impairment?

Psychoeducational

Is there a resource guide for intelligence testing of students with a visual impairment?

Yes, Intelligence Testing of Individuals Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired (APH) External link opens in new window or tab. is an excellent, straightforward resource for guidance on testing students with a visual impairment. It is highly recommended to review this position paper before beginning an evaluation.

Do you have an example of a validity statement to include in my report?
  • Example 1: The results of many norm-referenced tests standardized on sighted individuals are conservative indicators of the characteristics being measured. Scores on these tests can also be influenced by the individual's motivation, attention, interests, and opportunities for learning. All assessment procedures measure a limited sample of an individual's total repertoire, a snapshot of their skills and development. STUDENT's visual and motor challenges were taken into account in the selection of all assessment measures and the interpretation of results.
  • Example 2: Tests and assessment procedures standardized on sighted individuals can be useful when used with individuals with visual impairments if administered and interpreted by persons knowledgeable of the effects of a vision loss on cognitive development and test performance. Vision loss deprives the individual of certain environmental experiences and the learning opportunities required for future understanding. Loss of distance vision also reduces the incidental learning opportunities required for future understanding. [Include any accommodations utilized during evaluation to accommodate for any sensory needs] The results of the Functional Vision Assessment and Learning Media Assessment were taken into consideration when selecting tests for this evaluation. Given STUDENT's primary learning medium is auditory/tactile/visual, the majority of tests administered primarily relied on the auditory/tactile/visual modality. [If appropriate, add: Testing of the limits was conducted in some areas with braille materials.]

    The results of many norm-referenced tests standardized on sighted individuals are conservative indicators of the characteristics being measured. Scores on these tests can also be influenced by the individual's motivation, attention, interests, and opportunities for learning. Please keep in mind that an individual assessment cannot assess all of the skills that STUDENT might be capable of using to help him/her/them achieve his/her/their goals and enjoy life. All assessment procedures measure a limited sample of an individual's total repertoire, a snapshot of their skills and development. Assessment procedures offer the most information when they can be repeated and the results compared over time to determine rate of growth and development.
  • Example 3: Other report writing validity statement samples External link opens in new window or tab. (Google Doc)
  • Example 4: There are no standardized measures developed for children with visual impairments; therefore, this child's performance is being compared to the sighted population on whom this measure was developed. The results should be considered conservative estimates of the child's cognitive abilities given their life experiences have been different from birth than those in the normative group.
  • Example 5: The results of many norm-referenced tests standardized on sighted individuals are conservative indicators of the characteristics being measured. Scores on these tests can also be influenced by the individual's motivation, attention, interests, and opportunities for learning. All assessment procedures measure a limited sample of an individual's total repertoire, a snapshot of their skills and development. The student's visual impairment was taken into account in the selection of all assessment measures and the interpretation of results.
  • Note: Other impacts to the validity of assessment results must be considered, such as the student's state of health and condition during the evaluation period.
What assessment tools do you recommend using for evaluating cognitive and processing skills of a student who is visually impaired?

Please review the cognitive and processing subtests External link opens in new window or tab. (Google Doc) document for assessment tools that are administered primarily auditorily.

As a reminder, it is important to look beyond the numbers (standard scores) for meaningful data. It is best to use a multimethod, multiple-informant approach to the evaluation and gather data across settings (e.g., physical environments and social environments) and time. Collection of meaningful data will lead to appropriate recommendations to support the student's independence and competency.

What are some examples of questions I should be asking regarding a student's fluid reasoning abilities for a student with multiple disabilities?

Consider records review, interviews, and observations as data points for cognitive and processing. The following are example questions to examine fluid reasoning:

  • How well does the student generalize or make connections between new material and acquired knowledge?
    • Generalization: "A student may demonstrate a particular concept with one task and not with another. This would indicate that the student has not generalized this concept into all phrases of his or her environment. A concept that is inconsistently shown at a higher level of development indicates that his or her brain is developing the necessary neural networks for this level of processing and that the student would benefit from exposure to many tasks that require the particular concept... Rotely learned information will not generalize to new situations or materials. It is only when the student has changed the conceptual scheme in his or her brain that generalization of new information (within that conceptual field) will occur... Generalization is a naturally developing skill that relates to the late pre-operational levels of development (to a limited degree) and beyond. Individuals who have not obtained that level of reasoning ability will need to one shown ('taught') the same skill in many different settings" (Dantzig et al., 2018, p. 23).
    • How much scaffolding is needed to teach a new concept or skill keeping in mind the level of instruction needed to teach the same skill to a typically developing same-age peer?
  • How does the student problem solve in new and everyday situations?
  • To what extent is the student able to understand the big picture and how things relate to each other?
  • How does the student troubleshoot or figure out how things work?
  • How does the student reason through mathematical relationships and properties (e.g., number sense, shapes, etc.)?
  • How well does the student grasp the main idea of stories?
  • How does the student demonstrate flexible thinking (e.g., in problem solving, transitions, with various service providers)?
  • If the student presents with splinter skills, how well does the student consistently and independently apply skills in their areas of strength to meet daily demands?
Will enlarging a test (through large print or under a video magnifier) invalidate test results?

The question of whether enlarging invalidates all tests is difficult to answer since it depends on the test and what is the test supposed to measure. When items are in large print and/or viewed under a video magnifier, scanning a wider field may increase the difficulty on a task and impact the student's performance, such as on tasks measuring processing speed. If enlargement or any accommodation changes how hard or easy the test is or changes what skills are being measured, the test results should be reported clinically/qualitatively with no scores. Issue 10 (American Printing House - APH) External link opens in new window or tab. of Intelligence Testing of Individuals Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired (American Printing House - APH) External link opens in new window or tab. provides guidance on reporting assessment results.

You also should consider whether the student is accustomed to the assistive technology being used. If the student is not used to working with the video magnifier or other devices used to provide access, then the test should not be scored, but the student's performance may provide helpful information for drafting accommodation recommendations.

Can I administer tests with visual-spatial stimuli to a student with a visual impairment?

A student's performance on tests that include visual stimuli may be more appropriate to use to inform recommendations for accommodations or modifications in the classroom rather than interpret quantitatively. In most cases, it is more appropriate to interpret the results in a clinical/qualitative way than to report scores. Issue 9 (American Printing House - APH) External link opens in new window or tab. of Intelligence Testing of Individuals Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired (American Printing House - APH) External link opens in new window or tab. provides excellent guidance on interpreting visual-spatial item/test results.

Can I report a full IQ score for a student with a visual impairment?

No, do not calculate full scale IQ scores for students with a visual impairment since scaled scores have been shown to vary with visual acuity, particularly on timed tasks and especially on those with bonus points for rapid completion. Interpret the student's performance qualitatively to illustrate the ways in which performance deteriorates when increased demands are placed on the visual system. Issue 10 (American Printing House - APH) External link opens in new window or tab. of Intelligence Testing of Individuals Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired (American Printing House - APH) External link opens in new window or tab. provides guidance on reporting assessment results.

What tests are available in braille and/or large print?
I am assessing my first student with a visual impairment and don't know where to begin. What resources do you recommend?

The CSB Assessment team recorded a 3-hour webinar about Psychoeducational Evaluations of Students with Visual Impairments External link opens in new window or tab. (02:52:31) in Spring 2021. Please review the webinar and accompanying handout External link opens in new window or tab. (Google Doc) for a thorough introduction to assessing students with a visual impairment.

Additionally, Intelligence Testing of Individuals Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired (American Printing House - APH) External link opens in new window or tab. is an excellent, straightforward resource for guidance on testing students with a visual impairment. It is highly recommended to review this position paper before beginning an evaluation. Some school psychologists call Making Evaluations Meaningful (2nd edition) (Loftin, 2022) their visual impairment evaluation bible. The publication has a straight-forward and easy to understand writing style.

Be aware that challenges with understanding of scale, depth, shadow, perspective, and space may be present in a student, especially if the etiology of a visual impairment is congenital or during the early developmental period. The following is a quick summary of possible difficulties with cognitive development in students with a visual impairment.

  • Tendency to have fragmented understanding of concepts
  • Difficulty in understanding concepts without direct experiences
  • Difficulty in generalizing to new situations
  • Tendency to rely upon rote memory
  • Inability to focus on multiple elements of a concept
  • Frequently present as more cognitively able simply because of large vocabularies without corresponding meaning

Students who are blind often start their educational path through rote memory alone. They often memorize numbers and letters but don't experience the concepts, problem solving, and reasoning that create a solid base for further learning. Make sure to assess working memory and not just rote short-term memory.

The following provide general guidelines to consider for test selection.

  • How does vision impact access to the test? Is the specific TEST (or part of the test) accessible to the specific CHILD?
  • Is the test measuring the construct you want it to considering the child's vision?
  • How does vision impact development of the skill you are assessing?
  • Whenever possible, choose tests that are FULLY accessible without adaptations or modifications. Modified tests should not be used for decision making purposes but provide valuable clinical information.
  • Do not rely on the name of a test. For example, "Verbal IQ" on the Stanford Binet-5 asks children to respond to pictures, some of which are visually very complex.
  • Be cautious about any test which has small manipulatives.
Do you have any suggestions for using the APH Woodcock-Johnson-IV Braille Adaptation (WJ IV Braille) (Jaffe, 2017)?

Woodcock-Johnson-IV Braille Adaptation (WJ IV Braille) (Jaffe, 2017) External link opens in new window or tab.. First, before administering the WJ IV Braille edition, review the WJ IV Braille Adaptation Administration Guide and Resource Manual. The braille adaptation of the WJ IV must be administered and interpreted by an examiner team that includes a qualified primary examiner who is competent in administering the WJ IV to sighted individuals (school psychologist) and an ancillary examiner who is competent in braille, Nemeth, and impacts of visual impairment on development and functioning (TSVI) (Jaffe, 2017). Second, consider adding the Number Matrices subtest from the Achievement battery if you would like to tap into numerical reasoning beyond the Number Series subtest. A table with WJ IV Braille cluster information is on page 30 - 31. Lastly, when using the WJ IV Braille, note that "[a]lthough the norming sample is the same as for the print WJ IV, the scoring tables and scoring software were developed specifically for the WJ IV-Braille, factoring in new clusters and item deletions and substitutions" (Jaffe, 2017, pp. 26-27). Review the sections on cautions in using the WJ IV Braille, interpreting test results, and scoring software for the braille adaptation in the Braille Adaptation Administration Guide and Resource Manual.

What suggestions do you have about observational assessment?

During observations, consider noting the following.

  • Compare peers' responses to curriculum versus the student's.
  • Note how the student is expected to exhibit understanding of the content or skill being taught.
  • Look for what types of instructional procedures or methods best support the student's learning.
  • Examine how others in the different environments interact with the student, and how the student interacts with peers and adults.
  • Note use of assistive technology and what barriers are present to the student's access.
  • Observe demonstrated executive functioning skills, such as organization of materials and tasks and level of independence in work production and engagement. Does the student initiate work or wait to be prompted by an adult?

Best practices for legal defensibility include documenting the following in observation write-ups (Corbin, 2021).

  • Time of observation
  • Length of observation: Observations should be at least 20 minutes long.
  • What were the general education students doing (if any are present)?
  • What were the special education students doing (if any are present)?
  • What was the student being evaluated doing?
What suggestions do you have for assessing an English Learner?

Consider the difference between Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) versus Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). For a neurologically typical individual who is learning English, it can take about 2 to 4 years to develop social/conversational language, but it can take 5 to 7 years to develop CALP for someone who is literate in their first language or 6 to 9 years for someone who is not literate in their first language. A student's language ability can be easily overestimated when only considering the BICS and not recognizing the complexity and challenges of developing CALP in a second language. Consider administering tests involving analogies, antonyms, synonyms, and verbal absurdities. For example, consider the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales - 2 (RIAS-2) Guess What and Verbal Reasoning subtests or Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children - 2 (KABC-II) NU Riddles subtest.

Additionally, consider completing a Student Oral Language Observation Matrix (SOLOM) External link opens in new window or tab.. The SOLOM is a rating scale that teachers can use to assess their students' command of oral language in terms of comprehension, fluency, vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar on the basis of what they observe on a continual basis in a variety of situations.

Is there a way to connect with other school psychologists about assessing students with a visual impairment?

Yes! Consider joining the BVIPsych: School Psychologists Serving Students with Visual Impairments listserv External link opens in new window or tab.. BVIPsych is an interactive listserv for school psychologists serving students who are blind or visually impaired. This forum offers a space to share resources and support one another as we strive to strengthen our clinical skills and practices to assure quality assessments, interventions, and support services.

Speech and Language

What standardized assessment tools do you recommend using for a speech language assessment of a student with a visual impairment?

While no single Speech and Language assessment is likely to be suitable for a student with a visual impairment in its entirety, using a battery of standardized assessment subtests can help provide a picture of a student's skills. There are many non-standardized tools which provide valuable information as well. The SLP Assessment Considerations for Children with Visual Impairment External link opens in new window or tab. (Google Doc) document created by Speech Language Pathologists at CSB highlights subtests that do not rely on visuals and/or can be adapted for students with visual impairments. Review SLP's working with VI - Resource and Knowledge Bank External link opens in new window or tab. (Google Doc) for additional information and resources.

When planning an evaluation, consider creating an assessment battery by pulling appropriate subtests from various tools. For a student with low vision, collaborate with the student's TSVI when considering using visuals or incorporating braille into the assessment. In particular, few vocabulary tests exist that do not require pictures, especially for early communicators. If you decide to enlarge visual stimuli in a subtest, consult with the TSVI for the most appropriate option. For some students, you may get a better understanding of the student's vocabulary from informal measures. For example:

  • Following directions (locating body parts, performing different actions, etc.)
  • Locating items by name (within a given number of items)
  • Locating items by function
  • Grouping items by category
  • Listing items within a category
What additional non-standardized tools can I use to assess a student's communication?
  • The Communication Matrix External link opens in new window or tab. is a free assessment tool designed to help families and professionals easily understand the communication process, progress, and unique needs of anyone functioning at the early stages of communication or using forms of communication other than speaking or writing. It is available in multiple languages.
  • The Listening to Learn checklist (pp. 517-520) from Learning to Listen Listening to Learn (American Printing House - APH) External link opens in new window or tab. is an informal checklist that looks at listening skills development for preschool and kindergarten. The checklist includes items in the areas of auditory attention (maintaining attention, figure-ground discrimination), auditory discrimination, auditory memory (concepts and directions, sequence), listening skills for reading readiness, and social listening.
  • The MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories External link opens in new window or tab. is helpful to get an inventory of a student's receptive and expressive language.
  • Create a "Communication Dictionary External link opens in new window or tab." for receptive and expressive communicative behaviors. List out the student's attempts at communication, what the behavior likely means, and the best response.
  • The Colorado Communication Scales External link opens in new window or tab. is intended to help organize data after an assessment.
  • The Functional Communication Profile - Revised External link opens in new window or tab.: The (FCP-R) is an informal criterion-referenced measure that yields an overall inventory of the individual's communication abilities, mode of communication (e.g., verbal, sign, nonverbal, augmentative), and degree of independence.
  • Look for norm-referenced tools to help gather information when standardized tests are not appropriate,. For example: such as the Children's Communication Checklist 2 - U.S. Edition External link opens in new window or tab.. Keep in mind that even with these tools, many items are not adapted for students with a visual impairment. You may need to remove items or adapt them and thus not score the tool, but use it instead as descriptive information.
What tools do you recommend for a student with a visual impairment who has significant challenges with communication?
  • The How We All Learn Workbook External link opens in new window or tab. is a structured tool to provide technical assistance for educators and related service providers working with students who do not have a formal communication system. Outcomes include:
    • Identify how the student experiences and relates to the world around them, in order to identify how the student learns.
    • Identify and provide recommendations on five activities to begin the process of developing pre-symbolic and/or symbolic communication.
    • Find ways to best engage the student to be an active participant.
      (Note: It is best to download and view this in Word as Google Docs muddles up original formatting.)
  • The Sensory Learning Kit (SLK) - Guidebook and Assessment Forms (American Printing House - APH) External link opens in new window or tab. is designed for learners with significant challenges who have motor, sensory, communication, and cognitive impairments (for learners who are in the sensorimotor stage of development). It can help teams coordinate focused, effective, and holistic interventions. It also includes forms for assessment and a routines guidebook.
  • The SAM - Symbols and Meaning Kit (American Printing House - APH) External link opens in new window or tab. sequentially follows the SLK kit listed above. It is designed for learners at the late sensorimotor and early preoperational stage of cognitive development. The SAM guidebook provides strategies for developing a strong sensory foundation for concepts about people, objects, actions, and places so that symbols referring to them are meaningful. SAM provides four assessments External link opens in new window or tab.
    • Symbol and referent analysis: Common words
    • Symbol and referent analysis: Academic vocabulary
    • Environmental gap inventory: Missing concepts in common environments
    • Curriculum-based gap inventory: Early academic skills and basic concepts
Why should I assess a blind student's play abilities?

Many children with a visual impairment experience delays in their play development as they are missing the visual input typically required for beginning pretend play (imitation). Play skills, particularly pretend play, are crucial to developing language, social interactions, and concept development. Play development is directly influenced by vision. Children may also feel self-conscious or unable to join peers in pretend play and lack confidence to join social play groups. This can lead to a preference for adult interaction and an avoidance of peer interaction. This tendency is frequently flagged as an autism characteristic but may in fact be due to the student's experiences being visually impaired or blind. Teaching Play Skills to Visually Impaired Preschool Children: Its Effect on Social Interaction (Ozayden, 2015) External link opens in new window or tab., a research study article, examines the effects that teaching play skills to preschool children with a visual impairment has on their abilities to initiate and respond to social interactions with their typically developing peers.


Some additional online resources to learn about play in students with a visual impairment include:

Can students with a visual impairment and additional disabilities use an Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) device?

Yes, some students with a visual impairment are successful at using an AAC device. An SLP and AT specialist should jointly assess which device is most appropriate for a student. Consider both high-tech (iPads and devices) and low-tech (tactile symbols, pictures, etc.) AAC options. For further information regarding the use of AAC devices with students with a visual impairment, check out the following resources:

Do you recommend completing a language sample?

A language sample is a critical step in the assessment process. Few expressive language tests can be given without visuals, and a thorough language sample can provide great insight into the child's abilities. If permission is granted, a video sample is beneficial so you can see the student's use (or lack thereof) of gestures, body language, and facial expressions.

Visual Processing

Who provides services to a student with visual processing?

A number of different specialists can provide direct services for visual processing, most often an OT and/or RSP are the most appropriate service providers. TSVI's would be involved if the student also has an ocular impairment or CVI. TSVI's are not trained in remediating visual processing or providing vision therapy.

Blindness/Community/Other Resources

My district/county does not have some of the assessments recommended. Does CSB have a lending library?

Teachers from other public schools in California may borrow materials for their students from CSB. Teachers interested in borrowing materials should contact Elizabeth Hart, Library Technical Assistant, at 510-936-5575 or at ehart@csb-cde.ca.gov.

Are there any publications about assessment specifically for students with visual impairments?

Collaborative Assessment, Working with Students Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired, Including Those with Additional Disabilities (Goodman & Wittenstein, 2003) External link opens in new window or tab. is designed to help all professionals who work with students with visual impairments understand the impact of visual impairment on assessing students' learning potential.

Making Evaluations Meaningful (2nd edition) (Loftin, 2022) External link opens in new window or tab. is intended to provide guidance to evaluation personnel, TSVIs, and families and has been updated to include the newest information regarding testing and related instructional strategies.

My student's parents/guardians and Instructional Assistant (IA) are interested in learning braille. Is there a resource you can recommend?

Beginning Braille is a 6 part webinar series developed by Stephanie Herlich, MA, TSVI, COMS (CSB Assessment Center Coordinator; Teacher of Students with Visual Impairments/Orientation & Mobility Specialist) and provided by California School for the Blind. Beginning Braille is designed to introduce parents, caregivers, and paraprofessionals to the Unified English Braille Code. Participants in this course will learn alphabetic braille, numbers, basic punctuation, alphabetic word signs, and some of the most common short form words and initial letter contractions. Each lesson includes a description, examples, and independent practices with answers. All that is required to complete these tutorials are motivation, internet connection, PC or Apple computer, the free Perky Duck download, and the lesson materials listed in the YouTube description box.

How can my student's family stay up to date on opportunities for students with visual impairments?

The Resources for Families Supporting Students who are Visually Impaired Listserv was established to help student's families stay informed about opportunities for students with visual impairments and their families.

After reviewing this FAQ, my team still has questions. What is the best way to contact you for more questions?

If, after reviewing the FAQ, your team has specific questions, please complete the consultation request form External link opens in new window or tab. (Google Form) to request a team consultation to address case specific details. You may invite any of the IEP team members to attend the consultation; we ask that at minimum you and the TSVI involved in the evaluation be present for the consultation. Consultation scheduling is dependent on assessment team availability.